Go: معالجة الأخطاء وإدارة الحزم في Go

// Bad code: No error handling; it just panics.
func getUserByID(db *sql.DB, id int) *User {
    rows, _ := db.Query("SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = ?", id)
    // If the ID does not exist, rows.Next() returns false.
    // However, directly accessing the value below—the rows.Scan operation on nil—causes a panic.
    var user User
    for rows.Next() {
        rows.Scan(&user.Name, &user.Age)
    }
    return &user
}

// user_service.go
package main

import (
    "errors"
    "fmt"
)

// Custom Error Types
type NotFoundError struct {
    ID int
}

func (e NotFoundError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("user %d not found", e.ID)
}

// Error Sentinel
var ErrInvalidInput = errors.New("invalid input")

// Robust Query Function
func findUser(id int) (*User, error) {
    if id <= 0 {
        return nil, fmt.Errorf("findUser: %w", ErrInvalidInput)
    }

    users := map[int]User{
        1: {Name: "Alice", Age: 28},
        2: {Name: "Bob", Age: 32},
    }

    user, ok := users[id]
    if !ok {
        return nil, NotFoundError{ID: id}
    }
    return &user, nil
}

type User struct {
    Name string
    Age  int
}

func main() {
    for _, id := range []int{1, -1, 999} {
        user, err := findUser(id)
        if err != nil {
            // Determining the Type of Error
            if errors.Is(err, ErrInvalidInput) {
                fmt.Printf("Input error (skipped): %v\n", err)
                continue
            }
            var nf NotFoundError
            if errors.As(err, &nf) {
                fmt.Printf("User %d does not exist\n", nf.ID)
                continue
            }
            fmt.Printf("Unknown error: %v\n", err)
            continue
        }
        fmt.Printf("Found: %s (%d)\n", user.Name, user.Age)
    }
}

Found: Alice (28)
Input error (skipped): findUser: invalid input
User 999 does not exist

type error interface {
    Error() string
}

package main

import (
    "errors"
    "fmt"
)

// Method 1: errors.New (most commonly used)
var ErrNotFound = errors.New("resource not found")

// Method 2: fmt.Errorf (with formatting)
func validate(age int) error {
    if age < 0 {
        return fmt.Errorf("invalid age: %d (must be >= 0)", age)
    }
    return nil
}

// Method 3: Wrap the error in fmt.Errorf (%w)
func loadConfig(path string) error {
    if path == "" {
        return fmt.Errorf("loadConfig: %w", ErrNotFound)
    }
    return nil
}

// Method 4: Customizing the error type
type TimeoutError struct {
    DurationMs int
    Operation  string
}

func (e TimeoutError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("%s timed out after %dms", e.Operation, e.DurationMs)
}

func main() {
    // Method 1
    fmt.Println(ErrNotFound)  // resource not found

    // Method 2
    fmt.Println(validate(-5))  // invalid age: -5 (must be >= 0)

    // Method 3
    fmt.Println(loadConfig(""))  // loadConfig: resource not found

    // Method 4
    err := TimeoutError{DurationMs: 5000, Operation: "DB query"}
    fmt.Println(err)  // DB query timed out after 5000ms
}

package main

import (
    "errors"
    "fmt"
)

var ErrDB = errors.New("database error")
var ErrConn = fmt.Errorf("connection failed: %w", ErrDB)

func main() {
    err := fmt.Errorf("query failed: %w", ErrConn)

    // errors.Is searches layer by layer along the %w chain
    fmt.Println(errors.Is(err, ErrDB))    // true
    fmt.Println(errors.Is(err, ErrConn))  // true

    // == Can only match the outermost level
    fmt.Println(err == ErrDB)   // false (different objects)
    fmt.Println(err == ErrConn) // false
}

package main

import (
    "errors"
    "fmt"
)

type ValidationError struct {
    Field string
    Value interface{}
}

func (e ValidationError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("validation failed: %s = %v", e.Field, e.Value)
}

func process(input string) error {
    if input == "" {
        return ValidationError{Field: "input", Value: ""}
    }
    return nil
}

func main() {
    err := process("")

    // errors.As: Extracts the ValidationError type from the chain
    var valErr ValidationError
    if errors.As(err, &valErr) {
        fmt.Printf("Field %s is invalid, value=%v\n", valErr.Field, valErr.Value)
    }

    // Also works with wrapping
    wrapped := fmt.Errorf("process failed: %w", err)
    var valErr2 ValidationError
    if errors.As(wrapped, &valErr2) {
        fmt.Printf("(After wrapping) Field %s is invalid\n", valErr2.Field)
    }
}

Field input is invalid, value=
(After wrapping) Field input is invalid

package main

import "fmt"

func main() {
    fmt.Println("Start")

    // A panic immediately terminates the current function and begins stack unwinding.
    panic("something went terribly wrong")

    // This line will not be executed
    fmt.Println("End")
}

Start
panic: something went terribly wrong

goroutine 1 [running]:
main.main()
        /tmp/main.go:8 +0x...
exit status 2

package main

import (
    "fmt"
)

// recover is only useful in defer
func safeDivide(a, b int) (result int, err error) {
    defer func() {
        if r := recover(); r != nil {
            err = fmt.Errorf("panic recovered: %v", r)
        }
    }()

    // Intentionally triggering a panic
    if b == 0 {
        panic("division by zero")
    }
    return a / b, nil
}

func main() {
    // Normal call
    if r, err := safeDivide(10, 2); err == nil {
        fmt.Printf("10/2 = %d\n", r)
    }

    // A panic is caught by recover and does not cause a crash
    if r, err := safeDivide(10, 0); err != nil {
        fmt.Printf("Error: %v (result=%d)\n", err, r)
    }

    fmt.Println("Program ended normally—panic was recovered")
}

10/2 = 5
Error: panic recovered: division by zero (result=0)
Program ended normally—panic was recovered

# 1. Initialize module
$ go mod init github.com/alice/user-service
go: creating new go.mod: module github.com/alice/user-service

# 2. Import an external package in the code

package main

import (
    "fmt"
    "github.com/google/uuid"  // external dependency
)

func main() {
    id := uuid.New()
    fmt.Printf("Generated UUID: %s\n", id)
}

# 3. Add dependencies and organize
$ go mod tidy
go: finding module for package github.com/google/uuid
go: found github.com/google/uuid in github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0

# 4. View the generated go.mod
$ cat go.mod
module github.com/alice/user-service

go 1.22

require github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0

// math/calculator.go
package math

// Uppercase = Public (accessible to other packages)
func Add(a, b int) int { return a + b }
var Version = "1.0"

// Lowercase first letter = private (visible only within the package)
func helper(x int) int { return x * 2 }
var internalVersion = "0.5"

// Public Structure
type Calculator struct {
    // Public field
    Name string
    // Private field (cannot be accessed directly from outside the package)
    precision int
}

package main

import "yourmodule/math"

func main() {
    math.Add(1, 2)      // ✅ Public
    math.Version        // ✅ Public variable

    // math.helper(5)   // ❌ Private function; compilation error
    // math.internalVersion  // ❌ Private variable

    c := math.Calculator{Name: "basic"}  // ✅ Public struct
    // c.precision = 2  // ❌ Private field; compilation error
}

// apperrors/errors.go
package apperrors

import "fmt"

// Public Error Type (Uppercase)
type BusinessError struct {
    Code    int
    Message string
}

func (e BusinessError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("[%d] %s", e.Code, e.Message)
}

// Public Sentinel
var ErrUnauthorized = BusinessError{Code: 401, Message: "unauthorized"}

// Private error (external packages cannot reference directly)
type internalError struct {
    detail string
}

func (e internalError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("internal: %s", e.detail)
}

// Public factory function (external packages use internalError indirectly through this function)
func NewInternalError(detail string) error {
    return internalError{detail: detail}
}

// user_service.go
package main

import (
    "errors"
    "fmt"
)

// ---------- Error Definitions ----------

type NotFoundError struct {
    Resource string
    ID       int
}

func (e NotFoundError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("%s with id %d not found", e.Resource, e.ID)
}

type ValidationError struct {
    Field   string
    Message string
}

func (e ValidationError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("validation failed: %s - %s", e.Field, e.Message)
}

type DBError struct {
    Operation string
    Err       error
}

func (e DBError) Error() string {
    return fmt.Sprintf("db %s failed: %v", e.Operation, e.Err)
}

func (e DBError) Unwrap() error {
    return e.Err
}

// Sentinel Error
var ErrInternal = errors.New("internal server error")

// ---------- Data Layer (Simulated DB) ----------

type User struct {
    ID   int
    Name string
    Age  int
}

func queryUserFromDB(id int) (*User, error) {
    db := map[int]User{
        1: {ID: 1, Name: "Alice", Age: 28},
        2: {ID: 2, Name: "Bob", Age: 32},
    }
    user, ok := db[id]
    if !ok {
        return nil, NotFoundError{Resource: "user", ID: id}
    }
    return &user, nil
}

// ---------- Service Layer ----------

func GetUser(id int) (*User, error) {
    // panic protection
    defer func() {
        if r := recover(); r != nil {
            fmt.Printf("[PANIC] recovered: %v\n", r)
        }
    }()

    if id <= 0 {
        return nil, ValidationError{
            Field:   "id",
            Message: "must be positive",
        }
    }

    user, err := queryUserFromDB(id)
    if err != nil {
        var nf NotFoundError
        if errors.As(err, &nf) {
            return nil, nf
        }
        return nil, DBError{
            Operation: "queryUserFromDB",
            Err:       err,
        }
    }

    if user.Age < 0 || user.Age > 150 {
        return nil, ValidationError{
            Field:   "age",
            Message: fmt.Sprintf("unexpected age: %d", user.Age),
        }
    }

    return user, nil
}

// ---------- HTTP Layer ----------

func HandleGetUser(id int) {
    user, err := GetUser(id)
    if err != nil {
        var nf NotFoundError
        var ve ValidationError
        var de DBError

        switch {
        case errors.As(err, &nf):
            fmt.Printf("[404] %v\n", err)
        case errors.As(err, &ve):
            fmt.Printf("[400] %v\n", err)
        case errors.As(err, &de):
            fmt.Printf("[500] db error: %v\n", de)
            fmt.Printf("[500] Internal: %+v\n", de.Err)
        default:
            fmt.Printf("[500] %v\n", err)
        }
        return
    }
    fmt.Printf("[200] User: %+v\n", user)
}

func main() {
    // Normal
    HandleGetUser(1)

    // Input error (ValidationError with additional information)
    HandleGetUser(0)

    // User does not exist (custom NotFoundError)
    HandleGetUser(999)

    fmt.Println("\n=== Program Exited Normally ===")
}

[200] User: &{ID:1 Name:Alice Age:28}
[400] validation failed: id - must be positive
[404] user with id 999 not found

=== Program Exited Normally ===